This briefing was written by the National Foundation for Educational Research (NFER) and is based on national research with primary, secondary and special schools across England. The research was conducted for the Department for Education by NFER. The research team analysed national performance data for disadvantaged pupils (defined as pupils eligible for the pupil premium at the time of the research) and identified schools where disadvantaged pupils were making more or less progress than expected, given the characteristics of the pupils and schools. The team sent a survey to more and less successful primary and secondary schools in 2015: 1,329 schools responded to the survey and 49 school leaders from primary, secondary and special schools took part in interviews.